Tuesday, May 19, 2020
Laffey M. And Weldes J. ââ¬ËDecolonizing The Cuban Missile
Laffey M. and Weldes J. ââ¬ËDecolonizing the Cuban Missile Crisisââ¬â¢. and Harrington de Santana, A. ââ¬Å"Nuclear Weapons as the Currency of Power: Deconstructing the Fetishism of Force.â⬠At first glance, one can believe that those two articles would concern the same subject which could be the place of nuclear weapons in the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Why? Firstly, because the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962, discussed by Laffey and Weldes in their article is about how the threat of a nuclear war reached itââ¬â¢s height when missiles were implemented only 90 miles away from the American. And secondly, because Harrington de Santanaââ¬â¢s article discusses how the nuclear weapon can be translatedâ⬠¦show more contentâ⬠¦And to conclude, very briefly, this essay will try to find a common ground between the two articles. Issued in 2008 and 2009, both articles are periodically far from the theories followed by traditional scholars which are Realism, Realism and Marxism and they both introduce new theories that started developing not long ago in the beginning of the 1990ââ¬â¢s. (Sylvester, Chapter 12, 2014) Post-colonialism is the bottom-up study of International Relations instead of a top down or state-down study of the discipline (Sylvester, Chapter 12, 2014). And this theory is introduced in Laffey and Weldesââ¬â¢ article (2008). Post-colonial writings attempt to give a voice to the people with a different approach to International Relations. ââ¬ËPost-colonial writers rewrite these accounts by attending to the experience of the subalternââ¬â¢ (Laffey and Weldes, p. 559, 2008) Their voices have been muted because of their position of subordination facing ââ¬Ëgreat powersââ¬â¢ or superpowers in the case of the Cuban Missile Crisis. Indeed a common agreement can be made that the more powerful a state is, the more likely it s positioned on certain subject to be accepted, justified and made an integral part of History: ââ¬ËPower is both external to historical narrative and also constitutive of itââ¬â¢ (Laffey and Weldes, p. 564, 2009) There is also an interesting point made in their article. It does not only relate how Cuban scholars wanted their narrative of the events of October 1962 to be
Wednesday, May 6, 2020
Respect For International Humanitarian Law - 1517 Words
Respect for International Humanitarian Law Article 1 of the Geneva Conventions provides that States parties undertake to ââ¬Å"ensure respect for the present Convention â⬠. The same provision is repeated in Additional Protocol I in relation to respect for the provisions of that Protocol . It further provides that in the event of serious violations of the Protocol, States parties undertake to act, jointly or individually, in cooperation with the United Nations and in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations. A similar provision is included in the Second Protocol to the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property. Beginning with its commentary on common Article 1 of the Geneva Conventions, the ICRC has repeatedly stated that the obligation to ââ¬Å"ensure respectâ⬠is not limited to behavior by parties to a conflict, but includes the requirement that States do all in their power to ensure that international humanitarian law is respected universally . The interpretation that common Article 1 involves obligations beyond those of the parties to the conflict was supported by the UN Security Council in a resolution adopted in 1990 calling on States parties to the Fourth Geneva Convention to ensure respect by Israel for its obligations, in accordance with Article 1 of the Convention . The UN General Assembly has adopted several resolutions to the same effect and in relation to the same conflict . Other international organizations have likewise called on their memberShow MoreRelatedWhy Intervention Is A Fundamental Principle Of Sovereignty1366 Words à |à 6 Pagescontrary to the principle of sovereignty: ââ¬Å"According to the generally accepted doctrine of international law, no state has a right to interfere in the internal affair of a sister state, and the application is pushed so far as to forbid any attempt to check brutality and inhumane treatment in another state of that stateââ¬â¢s own nationals. 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These organizations place laws during war, if these laws hadnt been put in place during 1949 I dont think many of us would be here today. The main international agreements are the four Geneva Conventions of 1949. Nearly every country in the world is part of these treaties, they protect four different categories of war victims Ãâ" the woundedRead MoreInternational Law Changed During Post Wwii New World1576 Words à |à 7 PagesInternational Law profoundly changed in a post WWII new world order in which the world was forced to face one of the most disturbing and difficult conflicts in its history. Regions across all frontiers were affected by the spread of nuclear weapons, genocide, tyranny and other manmade strategies to deflect the stability and tranquility of a once calmer and more serene world. Institutions such as the United Nations were devised after the end of a war that convinced nations that what happens aroundRead MoreInternational Committee Of The Red Cross1281 Words à |à 6 PagesAccording to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the oldest humanitarian organization, humanitarianism can be defined as the independent, impartial and neutral delivery of relief to victims that are at risk of death, either because of natural disasters or armed conflicts. Across the decades, this concept has been changing; it was never the same. At the beginning it was only focused on certain type of people, such as soldiers. Nowadays, humanitarianism embrace all people without discriminationRead MoreInternational Law Is The Violation Of National Law Throws A Nation Into Social Anomalies1713 Words à |à 7 PagesIntroduction International law regulates the relationship between nation states in the world. Violation of international law makes the whole world hazardous as the violation of national law throws a nation into social anomalies. Drones are the weapon of 21st century, the century which is marked by the development of technology. It is thought-provoking and horrifying that the international law is being questioned by the drones attack throughout the world. It is said that the target of these UnnamedRead MoreThe United Nations1385 Words à |à 6 Pagesapproach, norms are socially constructed and therefore allow for International Organizations (Ios), Non-Governmental Organizations (Ngos), and Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOââ¬â¢s), to take a key role in educating and pressuring other international actors (Rutherford, 2000). Many of these organizations give their outmost efforts and pour vast amounts of resources into establishing, shifting, and changing social norms. 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In this paper, I will focus on the legitimacy of targeted killing, its ambiguo us lawfulness under jus ad bellum [Latin - right to war], and humanitarian problems caused in Pakistan during Bush and Obama administrations. I will conclude my paper by claiming that the current drone policy of the U.S. government is illegitimate
Urbanization Problems free essay sample
To what extent can the problems of urbanization be met a policy of sustainable development? Urbanization started during the industrial revolution and on that time workers were less interested in agriculture jobs and they moved to cities to acquire jobs in factories. Urbanization can be defined as the massive growth of people and migration of people from rural areas to large cities that also include growth of cities, social and economic development in the city. By the start urbanization in some cities they face to many urban problems in their cities.The main problems that cities face by urbanization are lack of urban space, housing, water, land and air pollution and urban transport problems (Bilham-Boult. et. al, 129). The idea of sustainable development promised that alternatives are available for the problems that come from urbanization in the cities (Adams, p. 140). The word sustainability has many meanings that according to Longmanââ¬â¢s Dictionary of English Language (1991) ââ¬Ëto sustainââ¬â¢ mean: to give support, to supply with sustenance, to cause to continue and many other meanings. There could be many different definitions of sustainable development.Brundtland says sustainable development is ââ¬Ëdevelopment that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needsââ¬â¢. Sustainable development states many solutions for relevant problems of urbanization that those solutions have worked before and had good results, so sustainable development can be a good solution to solve the urbanization problems in the cities. The population of the world is in increase nowadays and this growth of population also increase demand to facilities that many countries face to the problem of lack of urban space.Lack of urban space in countries make up many other problems in the city, that the major problems that come up from lack of urban space are housing, water, land and air pollution. Housing is one of the relevant problems to lack of urban space it has become a serious problem in many countries. For example, in Mexico poor peopleââ¬â¢s houses are mostly located on edges of the city, people has built many houses on public places and even on some farmerââ¬â¢s land that are illegal and donââ¬â¢t have coordination with the city master plan and these houses has made many shanty towns in the city (Bilham-Boult. et. al, 129). Also, other relevant problems to lack of urban space that comes from many sides like, problems of sewage system that still some cities sewerage draw out into rivers and in most places that people live illegally like shanty towns they donââ¬â¢t have sewerage systems and there is no doubt that those sewage may go to the other peopleââ¬â¢s drinking water supply. Land and air pollution is another concern which comes from lack of urban space. ââ¬Å"Illegal dumping of industrial waste and refuse from the ââ¬Ëinformal sectorââ¬â¢ creates land pollutionâ⬠(Bilham-Boult. et. al, 129). Besides this, millions of cars with old insufficient engines and use low quality petrol make the atmosphere of the city full of air pollution which is also an environmental and an urban transport problem (Bilham-Boult. et. al, p. 129). As day by day the population increases in a city the issue of transport also become important. When thousands of people start rural to urban migration their needs also become more and more day by day. They use city buses or have their own cars that clearly the number of cars also increases in the city and this can bring many problems to urban transport. The problem of traffic congestion that goes with a balance if the numbers of cars are in increase the problem of traffic congestion also increases with it. When people move to cities obviously for continuation of their lives they need to work and earn money which in some places their jobs become more dispersed that causes an urban transport problem, because traditional forms of public transport can only work in limited areas. Another problem is the combination of population and physical area with demographic trends and land use patterns that makes the transport planning difficult (Thisdell, p.126). Another problem that comes from population growth in cities is that car ownership also rises with the growth of population (Newman, p. 152). Every problem can have many solutions and ways to solve it, but it is important to find a comprehensive, universal and lasting solution for every problem to solve it completely and permanently. One way that can discourage people from moving to cities is to make improvement in other areas out of cities and bring those facilities and advantages that are not available in out of cities, so that people do not prefer city rather than other areas.This can be done by making better the educational system, social services, improving employment opportunities and making better transport system for people in other areas out of city (Bilham-Boult. et. al, p. 129). The problem of housing can be solved by building houses with great compactness and building some tall buildings with many apartments or floors outside the city that attract people who live in other areas (Bilham-Boult. et. al, p. 129).In a city that has millions of population obviously there will millions of cars in the city which bring pollution and, in addition to people the public transportation should also take care of pollution. To get rid of this pollution there should be enhanced transportation for public, awareness and knowledge should be provided about environmental issues, clean fuels should be used by cars, factories should use modern technologies and there should the act of fine against any illegal reaction by people and relevant companies (Bilham-Boult. et. al, p. 129-130). Another problem that concerns urban transport is traffic congestions in the city. Many strategies are available to stop traffic congestion from the city. One way to stop traffic congestion in cities is to reduce the number of private cars; citizensââ¬â¢ dependence on private cars can be decreased by cities that a good example of this solution is Zurich and Singapore (Newman, p. 154). Another solution for this problem can be high traffic management systems which can bring competence for road use and also for drivers to use the roads without any traffic congestion in the city (Newman, p.154). Firstly, if we go through the meaning of sustainability according to the Longmanââ¬â¢s Dictionary of the English Language (1991) the verb ââ¬Ëto sustainââ¬â¢ means: to give support or relief to, to supply with sustenance, to cause to continue, to support the weight of, to bear up under, to endure (to suffer, to undergo). These meanings all deal with continuousness that can be social, economic or environmental. There can be many definitions of sustainable development.As specified by Brundtland; sustainable development is ââ¬Ëdevelopment that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needsââ¬â¢. Sustainability was first time expressed by British legislation in 1991, in the act for the establishing of Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH). This idea started its international usage in 1980s and first time used by British law in 1993. After the SNH set up, it defined sustainability ââ¬Ëthe ability of an activity or development to continue in the long term without undermining that part of the environment which sustains itââ¬â¢.While in 1991 when other UK national conservation agencies established they introduced some other definitions about sustainability. Sustainability became an important idea which was not only dependent to one part in every parts like economy, politics and environments this word got a significant usage. In fact, this word got the ability that led people to express their various ideas effectively. This word was described as ââ¬Ëthe latest buzz-phrase to hit the planning professionââ¬â¢ by the Council for the Protection of Rural England (Adams, p. 137-138).When population grows rapidly in the city, people start migration from rural areas to cities the city face a big change. This includes social, economic and environmental development in the city and that countries become a developed country. Besides this, many problems also come with urbanization that the main problems are lack of urban space that consist many other problems with it and urban traffic problems that each of these problems could have many solutions. A solution that should be universal and suitable for all these urban problems can be sustainable development.Sustainable development is a solution that many countries have experienced during their urbanization age. Sustainable development is a solution that has worked before and had good result for many countries. The problem of lack of urban space and urban transport problems that cities face during their urbanization ages could be solved by following sustainable development policies. Sustainable development introduces many comprehensive policies for the problems of lack of urban space and urban transport that these policies have been experienced before and had good result.
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